Thursday, 20th March (Cambridge)

1. I hadn’t realised that today was World Happiness Day until I saw that Gallup’s annual World Happiness Report was published today https://www.gallup.com/analytics/349487/world-happiness-report.aspx Finland is the happiest country in the world for the eighth year in a row! PDF of full report below and here’s a short (and corporate) introductory video from the CEO of Gallup https://youtu.be/I32TsgpxntA

BUT here’s a dissenting view from Yascha Mounk https://yaschamounk.substack.com/p/the-world-happiness-report-is-a-sham

What I found was worse than I’d imagined. To put it politely, the World Happiness Report is beset with methodological problems. To put it bluntly, it is a sham. (…) it turns out that the World Happiness Report is not based on any major research effort; far from measuring how happy people are with some sophisticated mix of indicators, it simply compiles answers to a single question asked to comparatively small samples of people in each country:Please imagine a ladder with steps numbered from zero at the bottom to ten at the top. Suppose we say that the top of the ladder represents the best possible life for you and the bottom of the ladder represents the worst possible life for you. If the top step is 10 and the bottom step is 0, on which step of the ladder do you feel you personally stand at the present time?

2. I’ve always been puzzled as to how Finland’s very high suicide rate could be reconciled with their being the happiest nation in the world. It turns out I’m thirty years off the pace. Finland launched a highly effective national campaign in the 1990s in response to a suicide rate that at that time was indeed three times the European average. Here’s a piece from The Conversation by a team from Leiden and Tampere universities describing that success, Finland managed to halve its suicide rate – here’s how it happened https://theconversation.com/finland-managed-to-halve-its-suicide-rate-heres-how-it-happened-224708

3. Life mimicking fiction in this piece from The Spectator by Damian Thompson, which could almost be a review of the film Conclave, about the current manoeuvring for succession in the Vatican https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/does-china-have-vatican-city-in-its-sights/ (You’ll need to sign up for a free account if you haven’t already done so.)

4. Here’s a piece from Tim Klapdor’s blog, Heart Soul Machine, on our collective addiction to ‘devices’, Being Broken https://heartsoulmachine.com/blog/2025/03-09-being-broken/

In the depths of COVID we turned to technology to connect us and express ourselves. Then to entertain us through the lockdowns. Then to distract us from our disrupted lives. Then we succumbed to the addiction. I think the addiction broke us and turned us into … (looks around) … this.

Thanks to OLDaily for that one.

5. And, finally, from The Library of Congress, the ‘earliest surviving American animated film’, made in 1906 https://youtu.be/wGh6maN4l2I

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Tuesday, 18th March (Richmond)

1. Two free from this month’s Literary Review:

Sea of Troubles, a review by Owen Matthews of a ‘brilliantly written, convincingly argued and compelling book’, Baltic: The Future of Europe by Oliver Moody https://literaryreview.co.uk/sea-of-troubles

Death from the Clouds, a review by Philip Snow of a ‘short but quietly devastating book’, Rain of Ruin: Tokyo, Hiroshima, and the Surrender of Japan by Richard Overy https://literaryreview.co.uk/death-from-the-clouds

2. Maybe Bill Gates is one of the good guys after all? Here’s two recent blog posts of his:

What it will really take to feed the world https://www.gatesnotes.com/work/save-lives/reader/how-to-feed-the-world PDF of free chapter from Vaclav Smil’s book below.

I’m heading back to India https://www.gatesnotes.com/work/save-lives/reader/i-am-heading-back-to-india

A good guy compared to his slightly younger ‘tech bros’, that is, as captured (if only) in this marvellous Getty Images photo for The Daily Telegraph

3. A interesting blog post from BOLD, Inflated praise can reinforce stereotypes https://boldscience.org/inflated-praise-can-reinforce-stereotypes/

In our first experiment, involving 106 primary school teachers, we found that teachers tend to attribute the success of children from a low-SES background more to hard work, and to deliver more inflated praise such as “You did incredibly well!” Our second experiment involved 64 primary school children aged 10-13. Children learned that a classmate had received inflated praise while a child who had performed just as well had received modest praise or none at all. We found that children perceived the child who was praised more lavishly to be more hardworking but less smart.

4. An excellent feature from The Booker Prize people, interviews with all the International Booker Prize longlisted authors and their translators https://thebookerprizes.com/the-booker-library/features/interviews-with-the-international-booker-prize-2025-longlistees

5. And, finally, two short stories from The New Yorker to read and/or listen to read by the author

Five Bridges by Colm Tóibín https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2025/03/10/five-bridges-fiction-colm-toibin

Keuka Lake by Joseph O’Neill https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2025/03/03/keuka-lake-fiction-joseph-oneill

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Thursday, 13th March (Cambridge)

1. James Thomas’s new book, Discovering English with VersaText, is launched online this coming Saturday, 15th March, at 15:00 UK time. More info and registration here https://bit.ly/vtbl2025 and PDF below. Everyone gets a free chapter!

‘Discovering English with VersaText’ helps teachers and learners explore discourse, grammar, and vocabulary—one text at a time. If you prepare text-based lessons, especially in CLIL, ESP, EMI, and if you are studying or preparing students for TKT, DELTA, or IELTS, this session is for you.

2. When your economy is as big as the US one is, policy changes on climate and development have huge implications globally. Here’s a recent post on the Carbon Brief blog https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-nearly-a-tenth-of-global-climate-finance-threatened-by-trump-aid-cuts/

And here’s Chatham House’s take on Trump’s first fifty days more generally https://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/the-world-today/2025-03/world-upended-trumps-first-50-days-power

3. The next NATESOL event is one week today, Thursday 20th March, at 16:00 UK time and should be an engaging one, to judge by the title of the talk: Enhancing Online Learner Engagement: Insights from a University Language Centre with Sal Consoli from Edinburgh University. More info and registration here https://www.natesol.org/event-details/enhancing-online-learner-engagement-insights-from-a-university-language-centre

How can we sustain psychological engagement in online English language learning? In his talk, Dr. Consoli will share key insights from a research study conducted at a university language centre, exploring how digital tools, task design, and emotional appeal impact learner engagement.

4. And one hour later next Thursday at 17:00 UK time, if you’re incredibly well organised, you could also pop into this Healthy Linguistic Diet (HLD) face-to-face event in London, Bali, Borneo and Britain: From linguistic ecology to neuroscience More info and registration here https://healthylinguisticdiet.com/bali-borneo-and-britain-from-linguistic-ecology-to-neuroscience/

Examining the tension between mono- and multilingualism in different places across the world highlights differences, but also common themes, which led us to identify that our HLD model has much to offer when extended to encompass linguistic ecology and sustainability as well as social justice in language education. Our new framework provides an alternative to currently dominating academic monolingualism, emphasising the value of epistemic diversity and aligning with the agenda of decolonisation.

5. And, finally, the Mezcal Maniac blog. The clue is in the name. Good photos! https://mezcalmaniac.substack.com/p/three-palenques-and-a-funeral-a-wild

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Tuesday, 11th March (Richmond)

1. Here’s a combative interview in Der Spiegel with Pankaj Mishra about the war in Gaza, “Germany’s Reputation Has Been Badly Tainted by its One-Sided Support for the Israeli Government” https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/pankaj-mishra-on-the-war-in-gaza-germanys-reputation-has-been-badly-tainted-by-its-one-sided-support-for-the-israeli-government-a-12cab975-96cd-4187-aefc-edce56113b0c

2. To give you time to arrange to attend, ample notice I hope of a very interesting-looking five-day webinar series from Pearson, Challenging traditional methods: Understanding AI-driven innovations in language teaching, which runs each day from Monday 24th to Friday 28th March at 16:00 UK time.

Monday – Adapting assessment in the age of AI: From challenge to opportunity with Amanda Bickerstaff

Tuesday – Help, I’m competing against AI: Human vs artificial intelligence in language teaching with Ilya Gogin

Wednesday – AI in language teaching: 10 major evolutions you need to prepare for with Alex Asher

Thursday – Avoiding AI slop: Generating age and level-appropriate content with Luke Priddy

Friday – Less planning, more impact: Using AI to create effective lesson activities with Jay Bhadresha & Nina Hall

More info and registration here https://www.pearson.com/languages/community/webinars/ai-driven-innovation-in-language-teaching.html There’s a professional development certificate on offer after each session; complete the full series to earn a Credly by Pearson digital badge!

3. Two recent pieces from The Guardian on Sir Kazuo Ishiguro (or ‘Ish’, as he prefers to be known)

‘The definition of a classic’: Kazuo Ishiguro’s ‘Never Let Me Go’ at 20 https://www.theguardian.com/books/2025/mar/08/the-definition-of-a-classic-kazuo-ishiguros-never-let-me-go-at-20

‘AI will become very good at manipulating emotions’: Kazuo Ishiguro on the future of fiction and truth https://www.theguardian.com/books/2025/mar/08/ai-will-become-very-good-at-manipulating-emotions-kazuo-ishiguro-on-the-future-of-fiction-and-truth

It’s about time I read Never Let Me Go, I guess!

4. I’m not sure how many people will have heard of Noël Coward nowadays. In his day, which was probably the period between the two world wars, there were few more famous actors and writers worldwide. Here’s a well-written piece by Oliver Soden for Engelsberg Ideas about a less well-known side of his character, Noël Coward the spy https://engelsbergideas.com/portraits/noel-coward-spy-espionage/

5. And, finally and cinematically, a Films Division film from India, I am 20, directed by S. N. S. Sastry https://youtu.be/fA8h74ZW8Ok  Those born on Independence Day in 1947 were selected from different parts of India and interviewed to know their hopes and desires, ambitions, hobbies, fears and frustrations and the result is this unique film.

And here’s a follow up film from 2021, which documents how (some of) those twenty-year-olds developed https://youtu.be/AICnH7QYmvM

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Thursday, 6th March (Cambridge)

1. I enjoyed this BBC Radio 4 series, Facing the Music, very much on my way back from Yorkshire last week https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/series/m002848z Toby Jones and Sibelius, Dominic West and Beethoven, Maxine Peake and Ethel Smyth: what’s not to like?

2. Back to the UKFIET blog for the first time in quite a while, where the call for abstracts for this year’s conference (in September) closes on 21st March https://www.ukfiet.org/2025/call-for-abstracts-is-open-2/ and there’s a new blog post from Pauline Rose, Celebrating evidence from the Girls’ Education Challenge https://www.ukfiet.org/2025/celebrating-evidence-from-the-girls-education-challenge/

3. A good piece from Laurie Bristow, who was UK ambassador to Russia from 2016 to 2020, on Putin, Putin’s war without end https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/world/europe/ukraine/69275/putins-war-without-end

A Trump-brokered ceasefire, says Laurie, however favourable to Moscow, will do nothing to alter the Russian president’s worldview or long-term aims.

You’ll need to create a free account – well worth doing!

4. A piece for The Conversation from Andrea Caputo, How to negotiate with Trump: forget principles and learn to speak the language of business https://theconversation.com/how-to-negotiate-with-trump-forget-principles-and-learn-to-speak-the-language-of-business-251399 Principles? Who needs them?

5. And, finally, a piece from the London Review of Books blog by Selma Dabbagh explaining how Israel still relies on ‘emergency regulations’ introduced by the British in 1945, ‘How life is in there’ https://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2025/march/how-life-is-in-there

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Tuesday, 4th March (Richmond)

1. NATESOL’s 41st Annual Conference, Learners and Learning, is on Saturday 17th May and is a hybrid event, online via Zoom or on-site at Manchester Metropolitan University. All speakers get to attend free and the deadline for the submission of proposals is not too far off, 27th March. More info here https://www.natesol.org/event-details/natesol-annual-conference-2025-call-for-proposals You’ll need to scroll down and click on ‘read more’.

2. Here’s an advance open access article from the forthcoming issue of ELTJ, Global Englishes teaching in secondary schools in Italy by Claudia Andreani & Jim McKinley https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaf010/8042391?login=false

To foster the internationalisation of higher education, English has been established as the lingua franca par excellence in as diverse domains as medicine, technology, science, diplomacy, and business and has been adopted as the medium of instruction in universities across the world. In this context, published English Language Teaching (ELT) research, mainly dominated by a ‘standard’ American or British English ideology, has instilled, and still promotes, an idea whereby English language learners should pursue native-like competence, thus attributing the status of role models to native English speakers (NES). Rooted in standard language ideology, this ‘code fixation’ (Seidlhofer 2018: 96) assigns prominence to British English and General American English in ELT as institutionalised varieties to the detriment of others which are widely used in global communication.

PDF below.

3. You’ll find all the episodes of the latest, third series of the TeachingEnglish podcast with We’am Hamdan & Chris Sowton here https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-development/podcast/teaching-english

Maybe try either Episode 4: What is the impact of artificial intelligence on English language teaching? https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-development/podcast/teaching-english/teachingenglish-podcast-what-impact-artificial

or Episode 9: How can we use the creative arts to teach English? https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-development/podcast/teaching-english/how-can-we-use-creative-arts-teach-english

Show notes and transcripts in English and Arabic are available to download for each episode.

4. Staying with TeachingEnglish, here’s the recording of an enjoyable TeachingEnglish Facebook Live event last week, Planning for Every Learner, with Emily Bryson & Gabriel Díaz Maggioli https://www.facebook.com/TeachingEnglish.BritishCouncil/videos/planning-for-every-learner/632161289446568 Emily and Gabriel answered questions from the audience about lesson planning, differentiation, visual thinking, and more.

Here’s the TeachingEnglish homepage with info on forthcoming events, not just the ones I tell you about after the fact! https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/

5. And, finally and cephalopodically, an NYT gift article with some great video, What a Crab Sees Before It Gets Eaten by a Cuttlefish https://tinyurl.com/3n7t6mzx

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Thursday, 27th February (Cambridge)

1. Two recent posts about young children’s behavioural development on the BOLD blog:

Do tablets help or hinder children’s play? with Salim Hashmi & Kathryn Bates https://boldscience.org/do-tablets-help-or-hinder-childrens-play/

When children are with another person, they tend to benefit from playing on a tablet much as they do from playing with traditional or physical toys (…) But the situation is different when children play with tablets and toys while they are alone. Children playing alone speak less and talk about thoughts, feelings and desires less often when they play with a tablet than when they play with a doll.

and Helping children help each other with Jellie Sierksma & Annie Brookman-Byrne https://boldscience.org/helping-children-help-each-other/

The main finding is that children do not help all peers equally, and their help can perpetuate inequality. The 7- to 9-year-olds in my study provided the least beneficial help to peers who struggled with a task, and the most beneficial help to peers who were already good at that task. In other words, children did not promote learning and skill development in those who needed it the most.

2. I’m two days earlier than promised with this one from The Spectator by Katy Balls, Starmer’s Trump charm offensive gets underway https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/starmers-trump-charm-offensive-gets-underway/ Am I right to think that Starmer looks a little anxious? (You’ll need to register. It’s free and you can tick a ‘Please don’t send me subscription offers’ box when you do so!

3. James Howells is considering buying a council dump in south Wales after his former partner accidentally threw away a hard drive containing his bitcoin wallet. Howells has already lost a high court case to allow him to search the tip for the hard drive, which he believes contains bitcoin worth £600 million. Here’s an analysis of his chances of finding it by Craig Anderson, a senior lecturer in statistics from Glasgow University, Man wants to search dump for lost hard drive with bitcoin fortune – here are his odds of finding it https://theconversation.com/man-wants-to-search-dump-for-lost-hard-drive-with-bitcoin-fortune-here-are-his-odds-of-finding-it-249889

4. 7.4 million people have already watched this video, Honda – The Cog,  but let’s hope some of you haven’t! https://youtu.be/Z57kGB-mI54

5. And, finally and possibly spiritually depending upon your point of view, here’s the results of a recent opinion poll in the US. How would you have answered?

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Tuesday, 25th February (Richmond)

1. Lost England, a gallery of photos from 1870 to 1930 from The Guardian to start with today, including one of the labour-intensive construction of the Manchester ship canal in 1889 https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/gallery/2016/nov/28/lost-england-photographs-from-1870-to-1930

2. The longlist for this year’s International Booker Prize includes books written in ten languages: Arabic, Danish, Dutch, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Kannada, Romanian and Spanish. https://thebookerprizes.com/the-booker-library/features/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-international-booker-prize-2025

3. A recent post from Timothy Snyder – both audio and text versions – on his blog, Thinking About, Crossing a line: borders between one kind of life and another https://snyder.substack.com/p/crossing-a-line-audio-and-text

I am on a night train from Kyiv, bound for Zaporizhzhia, a city in the southeast of Ukraine which is about twenty miles from the front. Russian missiles take about thirty-five seconds to hit the city, and the take civilian lives. Since Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Russia has occupied part of the Zaporizhzhia region. In September of 2022 the Russian parliament proclaimed the annexation of the region as a whole. That front is a line that runs through Zaporizhzhia region, and indeed across the east and south of Ukraine. My train rushes southeast, towards that line. Its passengers, civilians and soldiers alike, know what lies on the other side. Given the nature of Russian occupation, Ukrainians are fighting not only for their lives, but for a certain idea of life in freedom.

If you’ve time, listen to the audio version.

Plus a poem, What War Is, by Ostap Slyvynsky https://snyder.substack.com/p/what-war-is

4. Catch this one if you can on March 6th at 14:00 UK time, David Crystal on The Future of English. Register here https://futureofenglish.britishcouncil.org/research-forum-25 Not the first time that David has spoken on this topic over the years!

5. And, finally, the famously reclusive Thomas Pynchon https://youtu.be/9EDo38geLgo?feature=shared Or maybe not?!

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Thursday, 20th February (Cambridge)

Blog version: https://roycross.blog/

1. SHORT NOTICE: 18:30 UK time tomorrow, Friday 21st February, an RSA online event, Russia’s war in a global perspective, with the former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine, Dmytro Kuleba, and BBC journalist Clive Myrie. More info and tickets here https://www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/russias-war-in-a-global-perspective-tickets-1123563070389?ref=ebtn

2. Where now for the UK’s development policy? The Independent Commission for Aid Impact (ICAI) and other speakers review the effectiveness of government development assistance at 12:00 UK time on Wednesday 26 February 2025. Online and face-to-face at Chatham House if you happen to be in London; register here https://www.chathamhouse.org/events/all/open-event/where-now-uks-development-policy You’ll need to create a free account first.

The government has committed to ‘rebuilding Britain’s reputation on international development’. But it does this at a time of multiple, significant global challenges, including slow progress towards the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals and wider geopolitical volatility. It also faces heavy pressure on public finances – and with one-third of UK aid now being spent domestically on refugee and asylum support, there is heightened scrutiny placed on how and where the government spends aid money. Following the release of a new report by ICAI setting out the current trends in UK aid, experts will reflect on where recent developments and patterns have left us, including what to consider for the immediate future. ICAI is the independent body that scrutinises the UK aid budget, through evaluation of the impact and value for money of UK development assistance.

3. From the Runnymede Trust, A hostile environment: language, race, politics and the media by Maka Julios-Costa & Camila Montiel-McCann from Lancaster University. Background to the report here https://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/a-hostile-environment-language-race-politics-and-the-media and PDF here (also attached below) https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/61488f992b58e687f1108c7c/6798ec9f5e429b786277f9db_A%20hostile%20environment_report_v4.pdf

The ‘hostile environment’ is the latest manifestation of longstanding racist/xenophobic beliefs and ‘white replacement’ anxieties that have always driven immigration law in the UK. It is a form of modern racism, designed to keep as many people of colour and ethnically minoritised people as possible out of the UK, without appearing to be racist. In light of the riots that took place around the country in August 2024, where asylum accommodation, mosques and minority-owned businesses were systematically attacked by groups of mostly white supporters of the far right, we need to acknowledge that media and politicians play a key role in perpetuating beliefs and expectations about who belongs in the country and who doesn’t. Our research shows how large sectors of the media and parliament engaged in widespread hostility towards migrants long before the announcement of the ‘hostile environment’ was made by Theresa May in May 2012. This hostility was then amplified once the ‘hostile environment’ was officially recognised as government policy.

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4. There’s a reflective, rueful piece by Simon Anholt, “acknowledged as the world’s leading authority on national image”, in the latest issue of the Place Branding and Public Diplomacy journal on place and nation branding, two terms he pretty much invented Place branding: has it all been a big misunderstanding? https://tinyurl.com/457hzeh4

Here’s Simon’s introduction to his piece: My first published essay on the topic of national image appeared in the Journal of Brand Management in 1998: this was, I believe, the first time the words “nation” and “brand” had appeared next to each other in print. The piece elicited positive interest so the journal’s publisher, Brenda Rouse, suggested that I guest-edit a Special Edition of the journal, devoted to the topic of national image. The Special Edition duly appeared in 2002, and again the response was warm enough to encourage Henry Stewart Publications to allow me to launch a new journal, Place Branding (we renamed the Journal Place Branding and Public Diplomacy in Volume 3), which was first published in 2004.My Editor’s foreword to the first edition of the new journal began in a rather excitable tone: ‘Place branding is happening. A new field of practice and study is in existence, and whatever we choose to call it or however we wish to define it, there can no longer be any doubt that it is with us’. Sadly, much of my writing on this topic during the twenty years since I wrote those words has been less upbeat: actually, it’s been partly a series of retractions or, as some have wittily called them, product recall notices. The dangerously faulty product I’ve been trying to recall is of course the term “branding”, which as I realised far too late, is vague, ambiguous and potentially misleading in this context (in fact, in most contexts).

5. And, finally, I’m getting to an age where I take the findings of articles such as this one seriously, even if I don’t really understand them, Individual and additive effects of vitamin D, omega-3 and exercise on DNA methylation clocks of biological aging in older adults from the DO-HEALTH trial https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00793-y

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Tuesday, 18th February (Richmond)

1. There’s a MenTRnet panel discussion at 13:00 UK time this coming Saturday, 22nd February, Integrating teacher-research into pre-service teacher education. More info and registration here https://mentrnet.net/integrating-teacher-research-into-pre-service-teacher-education-festival-event/

Mentoring teacher-research is often conceived of as an activity to engage in with in-service teachers, but there are some inspiring initiatives around the world to introduce student-teachers to action research at the earliest stage in their careers. Each speaker in this panel discussion will talk about the particular context where they have introduced (exploratory) action research into pre-service teacher education, how they have done so, and the challenges they have faced as well as successes achieved. There will be time for panel participants to comment on one another’s experience, and then for comments and questions from the audience.

2. Exceptionally, a non-free event, the final ceremony of Voices Across Worlds, face-to-face in London or online this coming Saturday at 16:00 UK time. The event will showcase performances that have been created by young learners from Palestine, Cameroon, Greece, Malaysia and the UK and will also contain a live Q and A with the teachers and the performers and a launch of the project publication. More info and registration here https://www.eventbrite.com/e/voices-across-worlds-ceremony-tickets-1217908770919 If you’re lucky enough to be able to join face to face in London, you can enjoy Palestinian kunafah and coffee.

More about kunafah/knafeh here https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knafeh

3. Peter Kellner gave a lecture recently in which he sought to answer ‘two big questions’: “First, is democracy fundamentally a moral or an instrumental project? Second, is populism essentially driven by culture or economics?”

Here it is, written up in Prospect, How to defeat populism: the core message should be that populist policies are stupid and won’t work. But that argument is only credible from people voters respect https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/politics/populism/69237/how-to-defeat-populism

4. Peter’s lecture was preceded by a striking, clear presentation by Kelly Beaver from Ipsos UK, 2024: what just happened? and why? https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/publication/documents/2025-02/2024-what%20happened_Kelly%20Beaver_v3.pdf

Despite local nuance, says Kelly, the drivers are global

5. And, finally, a piece by James Graham Wilson for Engelsberg Ideas, The deep history behind America’s Greenland gambit https://engelsbergideas.com/essays/the-deep-history-behind-americas-greenland-gambit/

In the long history of the United States’ interest in Greenland, the pursuit of patient negotiations with allies has often fulfilled Washington’s strategic requirements. This may not be the case in 2025.

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